Bohemians... Unconventional Means The word "Bohemian" might seem a strange word to apply to salseros. After all, some West European cultures regard dancing already as a bohemian activity, particularly amongst men. So what or whom would constitute a bohemian's bohemian? The answer lies in the definition of bohemian as "a person with artistic or literary interests who disregards conventional standards of behaviour". The transnationalisation of salsa finds it located and interpreted in local contexts, its links to its points of origin de-emphasised through neglect or simply a lack of understanding.

Bohemian salseros recognise this phenomenon as conventional, and by their very nature find themselves doing otherwise.

In this section you will find reference to literary and visual materials that I've found useful if not enlightening.

The new timeline and expanded glossary are located here instead of in Revealing Items; because those interested in such matters are usually at a different stage of progression. And you'd probably want to cross-reference their content with that of the third-party material in the books and videos section.

And finally, there's a little page containing motley dance-related writings by me, gleaned from other sources. Call it a personal indulgence if you will. Every bohemian should have at least one.

Reviews: Books

General

World Music – The Rough Guide.
Edited by Simon Broughton, Mark Ellingham, David Muddyman and Richard Trillo. ISBN 1–85828–017–6.
The words of one reviewer summarises the guide beautifully: "A work of lunatic scholarship". If you’re into any form of world music, don’t settle for anything less. It covers the widest range of music, and does so very well. Superlatives blush with inadequacy.

Dancing. The Power of Dance Around the World.
By Gerald Jonas. ISBN 0–563–36411–4.
Gerald Jonas examines dance in all its guises, all over the world. Such a broad remit results in coverage that can be best described as a strong introduction to each dance. Nevertheless, the book still manages to convey a genuine feel for every aspect of its content using its beautiful photographs. A lovely book for dancers and non-dancers alike.

Caribbean Currents. Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae.
By Peter Mañuel. ISBN 1899365079.
Peter Mañuel examines the existence and development of music in the Caribbean; a mighty task. The level of detail varies from area to area, as would be expected. Prior knowledge of particular aspects is sometimes assumed, rendering the content slightly less accessible to the newcomer. A more than competent treatment of the topic, perhaps better suited to readers who share similar political views with the author. Useful.
 

Salsa

My Music Is My Flag: Puerto Rican Musicians and Their New York Communities, 1917-1940 (Latinos in American Society and Culture).
By Ruth Glasser. ISBN 0520208900.
The narrative of this work straddles the story of Puerto Ricans on the island of Puerto Rico and in New York City, from the early colonial period until the effective end of the Prohibition. It is an intensely human account of the events that befell the Puerto Ricans and how they managed to negotiate the challanges and changes they were faced with in this turbulent period, which coincidentally contributed immensely to the rise of salsa as we know it. Very good.

Salsa! Havana Heat, Bronx Beat.
By Hernando Calvo Ospina. ISBN 0–906156–98–X.
A Colombian view of salsa and its origins, the book offers many valuable insights. Foremost among these is a third party perspective of the contributions of Cuban and New York Latin populations on Salsa in recent times; a topic often polarised by political ideologies. Mr. Ospina’s style settles easily on the reader, which is an advantage since the book should be read more than once to get the most from it. Good.

Salsa – Musical Heartbeat of Latin America.
By Sue Steward (Foreword by Willie Colón). ISBN 0–500–28153–X.
Sue's long term immersion in the Latin music scene provides her with a very special perspective. She demonstrates a reasonable working knowledge of the landmark songs, albums, and performers. I found the portrayal of their histories and interconnections most informative. Her writing style is skittish and leaves the reader with an impression of sentences straining to cover too much ground in too little time, and when she touches on areas out of her field of competence, the material is occassionally flawed. The book is a good starting point, but I would encourage readers to delve a little deeper in other sources too. In the main she achieves what she sets out to do. Fair.

Cuba and Its Music: From the First Drums to the Mambo.
By Ned Sublette. ISBN 1556525168.
Seldom with subjects as broad as salsa do you find a text that is so well researched and so engagingly written that it justifies its position as the definitive text. Well, this is such a work. The author draws seemingly disparate ideas together and weaves them into a richly colourful tapestry. Often I found myself thinking "why is he talking about this matter now?" only to say to myself "it will be made clear in a few pages time", and my faith was never misplaced. The sheer scope of the work, from the second millenium BCE to the mambo period, is dealt with thoroughly and compassionately. This is the Ultimate endeavour, and I can pay it no greater complement than to say it is the book that I wish I could have written.
 

Merengue

Merengue – Dominican Music and Dominican Identity.
By Paul Austerlitz. ISBN 1–56639–484–8.
Paul Austerlitz writes authoritatively without losing touch with the reader. The tremendous amount of detail is finely crafted into a work that borders on the enthralling, demonstrating his comsummate understanding of the Merengue and its cultural context. Definitive.
 

Tango

Tango!
By Simon Collier, Artemis Cooper, Maria Susana Azzi, & Richard Martin. Special Photography by Ken Haas. ISBN 0–500–27979–9.
History and development of the Argentine Tango is covered in four sections, each by a different author. Some writing flow is sacrificed in favour of providing the reader with four personal views of the dance. It works well. The visual presentations are superb and go a long way in conveying the full flavour of the tango. The kind of book that spends more time on your lap than on the coffee table.
 

The Latin World

The Penguin History of Latin America
By Edwin Williamson. The Penguin Press, 1992. ISBN 0 14 01.2559 0
Professor Williamson traces the history of Latin America from when the first Latin–descended peoples set foot on those shores, detailing the impact they had on the indigenous cultures and how they evolved from that point. Five hundred years worth of history across such a large geographical span is a tremendous amount to cover, and he has succeeded in doing so extremely well. The topics of narration are arranged in a manner that makes it relatively simple to follow the most crucial developments. As general histories go, you would be very hard pressed to find a better one. Definitely an invaluable foundation piece for those who want to develop a good understanding of Latin American culture.

Salsa

Salsa Nightclub Style. By Eddie Torres.
(Available from Latin Sound)
A fine example of an instructional video. Eddie employs good basic teaching practices. Very well suited to the complete beginner. There are only two potential problems with them: there could be a little more content, and if you’re UK based, the timing is on “street two”. Otherwise, let’s hope he makes more. (Loo)

Dance Hot Salsa. By Josie Negila.
(Available from Super Latin Promotions)
Josie has planned the progression of moves and it shows. The move list implies a great number of them, possibly as a marketing ploy. It could have been easier on the student to present them as groups, in the form of root (or basic) moves and their variations. Some teaching quality is sacrificed in favour of quantity, and she leads herself around a bit. Dancers with some previous experience stand to benefit more from it. Makes good reference material. (Loo)

Sensual Salsa. By Elder Sanchez.
(Available from most Latin music outlets)
There are extended sections where Elder and partner just dance together, and so this video can provide inspiration about style and stringing combinations together. Some moves are taught for those who want extend their vocabulary. As an instructional tool, the content is not effectively communicated, falling short in detail, teaching points, language and consistency. Be aware that his movements are often not synchonised to the music due to poor production values. (Loo)

Tango

Tango Argentino. By Paul Bottomer.
(Available from Sounds Sensational)
This video is well pitched for a target audience of beginners, with respect to content, pacing and consistency. A brief history of the tango also helps to set the scene. The only major disadvantage is that the content is taught as routines, with crucial lead and follow information missing. The way the tango is presented is a little stylised and lacks some of its passion. (Loo)

Playing Music

Latin-American Percussion. By Birger Sulsbrück.
(Available from Music Sales Limited)
A stunningly brilliant video for beginners and experienced percussionists. Birger is a true master of rhythm and its instruction. He demonstrates and teaches how to play instruments including the clave, bongó, conga and timbales. The content is very heavily condensed but all the essential teaching points are there. Those learning from the video will have to be very attentive. The video and companion booklet go a long way into demystifying the complex world of Cuban Rhythm. A "must have" for anyone serious about playing Cuban music. (Loo) 

Café de Colombia
http://www.juanvaldez.com/
A fascinating site containing information related to Colombian coffee growing, including a brief history of the industry and some coffee recipes.

Congahead
http://www.congahead.com/
Personal website of Martin Cohen, founder of Latin Percussion Inc. Massive wealth of information: photos, video clips, interviews of everyone and anyone in the Latin music scene.

Cubafacts.com
http://www.cubafacts.com/
This site is committed to raising awareness of human rights conditions in Cuba, as reported by independent human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and others. Quite a bit of activism in this one, but there is genuinely good information present.

Cuba - fascinating but forbidden
www.chron.com/content/chronicle/special/cuba/index.html
Photoessay by the Houston Chronicle. A real gem of a find that I stumbled across. Imagery that pulls no punches. Visit it now. 

The Great Salsa Timeline
These are entries I've been making to keep track of the historical developments that I feel have been relevant in making salsa what it is today. A purely personal selection.

Events are listed in reverse chronological order.
The date format is year - month - day where available.
 

1995. Colombia. The official census counts 21% of the population as being of African origin, but does not factor in mestizos who have African blood.

1993. Colombia. Black land rights ratified. Up until this point, Afro-Colombian territories could be developed without due consideration to its occupants causing rural to urban migration.

1951. Union de Musicos de Puerto Rico becomes affiliated to the American Federation of Musicians.

Circa 1942. Cuba. Arsenio Rodríguez incorporates the tumbadora into his son group. Eduardo Rosillo intimates that this was for practical reasons: Arsenio being blind needed a helper, and so included his brother Kike in the line-up and on payroll so that he would not have to foot the expense of hiring someone seperately. The only instrument Kike could play was the tumbadora.

1940. Havana(?). Pianist Isolina Carrillo composes the bolero standard 'Dos Gardenias', which many decades later attains international exposure when it is recorded by the Buena Vista Social Club.

1939. New York City. Bobby Capó joins Rafael Hernández's Cuarteto Victoria.

1937. Puerto Rico. Union de Musicos de Puerto Rico [Puerto Rican Musicians' Union] is formed.

1937. Puerto Rico. Plácido Acevedo the famous instrumentalist and bolero composer forms Cuarteto Mayarí, which goes on to become one of the most influential small ensembles of Puerto Rico.

1935. New York City. The bolero 'Preciosa' composed by Rafael Hernández is recorded by Grupo Victoria. It attains the status of unofficial anthem amongst Boricuas.

1934. New York City. Augusto Coen y sus Boricuas become the first to apply the American Big Band concept to Latin music; an example emulated later by Machito, Tito Rodriguez and Tito Puente.

1933. 'Golden age of son' ends.

1930. New York City. 'El Manisero' [The Peanut Vendor] by Azpiazú's Havana Casino Orchestra meets with unexpected success on Broadway. Some historians attribute this event with triggering the rise in popularity of Cuban music in the U.S. The Cuban dance craze which ensues in the 1930s forces even non-Latino clubs to hire "Cuban"-style relief bands.

1930-July-14. New York City. Manuel "Canario" Jimenez records Rafael Hernández's bolero 'Lamento Borincano' later becoming a popular anthem of Puerto Rico.

1930s. Havana. Trio Azul premiers the classic 'Bilongo' (a.k.a. 'La negra Tomasa' 'Kikiribú mandinga') written by one of its members: Guillermo Rodríguez Fife.

1929. New York City. Cuarteto Victoria founded by Rafael Hernández and named after his sister. Also dubbed "El Cuarteto Rico" due to their smart appearance.

1929. New York City. 'Linda Quisqeya' was recorded by Trío Borinquen. Originally title 'Linda Borinquen', Rafael changed the title to appeal to the Dominican audience.

1928. Domincian Republic. The first Dominican records are made on home soil. Prior to this, nearly all were made in the United States.

1927. Cuba. Félix Chappottín and Lázaro Herrera join the Sexteto Habanero and Sexteto Nacional respectively. The addition of these trumpeters turn the ensembles into septets.

1927. Cuba. Sexteto Nacional established by Ignacio Piñero at the behest of Columbia Records.

1927. New York City. Victoria Hernández opens what is probably the first Puerto Rican-owned music store, which also acts as a booking agency and base of operations for her brother, Rafael.

1926. New York City. Trío Borinquen founded by Rafael Hernández.

1926. New York City. The "Harlem Riots" kick off, allegedly due to attempted intimidation of Hispanic shopkeepers from thugs hired by Jewish businessmen. The conflict spawns social activities that are affirmatively Puerto Rican.

1926. New York City. Manuel "Canario" Jiménez becomes lead singer for Rafael Hernández's Trío Borinquen. Canario would later leave to form his own group, promoting a (mainly) friendly rivalry with Rafael.

1925-May-23. Cuba. Sexteto Habanero wins Cuba's First National Son Competition.

1925. Beginning of what is commonly regarded as the 'Golden age of son'.

1923. Cuba. Sexteto Habanero removes the botija from its lineup replacing it with the contrabass.

1922-October-10. Havana, Cuba. Cuba's first commercial radio station PWX begins operations. The opening ceremony features the voice of Rita Montaner.

1922. Cuba. The government of Alfredo Zayas bans Lucumí dances effectively criminalising black culture.

1922. Puerto Rico. WKAQ makes the first official radio broadcast in autumn of this year. The licence was owned by a subsidiary of American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) company. It later plays an important role by bringing many names to light through its talent scouts.

1920. Cuba. Sexteto Habanero is formed through the expansion in lineup of Cuarteto Oriental.

1919-October-28. Washington DC, USA. Congress passes the National Prohibition Act, otherwise known as the Volstead Act, driving entertainment and drinking overseas to islands nearby like Puerto Rico and Cuba.

1919-May-09. Boston, USA. Jim Europe fatally stabbed one of his drummers Herbert Wright.

1919. Marianao, Cuba. Under the rule of Menocal, the company Casino de la Playa secures the passage of a law allowing them to operate Cuba's only gambling casino at their beach hotel. The name of the company would later become immortalised by a big band to which it lent its name.

1918. Cuba. The phonograph company Victor makes the first recording of son as played by the group "Sexteto Habanero Godínez" in Hotel Inglaterra.

Circa 1918. There is evidence of the phonograph company Columbia recording Puerto Rican musics like aguinaldos and danzas.

1917-May. Puerto Rico. The famous Ragtime and early Jazz bandleader James Reese Europe recruits brothers Rafael and Jesús Hernández, and 16 more Puerto Ricans to join the U.S. 369th Infantry "Harlem Hellfighters" band. He takes them with him back to New York.

1917-April-06. Washington, D.C. United States declares war on Germany, entering World War I.

1917-March-02. Washington, D.C. The Jones-Shafroth Act also known as the "Jones Act" is signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson, conferring full U.S. citizenship to Puerto Ricans.

1917. First jazz recording made by the Original Dixieland Jazz Band.

1916-1924. Dominican Republic. This is the official period of the U.S. occupation, placing the entire island of Hispanola under United States' control.

1916. Cuba. Black American Jazz plays on the island, demonstrating the strong New Orleans-Havana maritime link. This is one year before the earliest jazz recording by a (white) jazz band.

1915-1934. Haiti. The United States invade and occupy the nation following the death of President Guillaume Sam. Haiti becomes flooded with North American and Cuban dance styles aided by the mass media.

1914. New York City. The people of Harlem go "Tango Mad" partially due to the efforts of Irene and Vernon Castle.

1912-June-01. La Maya, Cuba. Independientes torch the buildings of this mostly-black country town. The song 'Alto Songo' with the refrain "Alto Songo, se quema La Maya" spreads quickly across the island striking fear into black Cubans. The song attains international exposure more than 80 years later by the Afro-Cuban All Stars.

1912-May-31. Hatillo, Cuba. Independiente General Carlos Mendieta's troops test their new machine guns on innocent Afro-Cuban peasants, killing or wounding 150 including women and children.

1912-May-02. New York City. The Clef Club Orchestra, led by Jim Europe, become the first black orchestra to play in Carnegie Hall presenting a "Concert of Negro (sic) Music".

Circa 1912. Cuba. According to Fernando Ortiz, the bongó is introduced to Havana upon the return of army after supressing the 1912 rebellion in Oriente.

Circa 1910. Puerto Rico. Conjuntos playing plena began to coalesce in the Ponce area.

1909. Havana. The son gets a boost in its island-wise dissemination when the Permanentes members from Oriente find themselves posted to Havana.

1902. Cuba. Carnivals are officially reinstated.

Circa 1902. Puerto Rico. The plena was supposedly born in the towns of the southern coast. Legend has it that the plena owes much to "Los Ingleses" John Clark and Catherine George, street-corner musicians who had migrated to Ponce from St.Kitts or Barbados.

1900. Havana. In a bid to promote "Cuban Culture" as white Cuban culture, Cuba under U.S. occupation and Dictator General Gerardo Machado's leadership issues an edict prohibiting: the use of drums of African origin at gatherings; and street parades like comparsas.

1898. Havana. Pianist Antonio María Romeu invited to join in playing with Papaíto Torroella's charanga group one evening; the first instance of charanga with piano.

1894-1900. Hispaniola. Sindo Garay travels (via Haiti) and sings with Dominican troubadours, introducing the Cuban bolero to the island. He may have introduced the word 'bachata' at this point, which would later become the name of the popular Dominican ballad genre.

1892. Puerto Rico. The mayor of Ponce outlaws the playing of nationalist and revolutionary danza 'La Borinqueña'.

1892. Puerto Rico. The first phonographs appeared on the island but were so prohibitively expensive that only the country's elite could afford them.

1885. Santiago de Cuba. The first documented Cuban bolero called "Tristezas" [Sadnesses] is penned by self-taught guitarist José "Pepe" Sanchez.

1879-January-01. Matanzas. The danzón 'Las Alturas de Simpson' is premiered at the Liceo de Matanzas. This is a watershed moment in the danzón's acceptance by society.

1877. Matanzas(?). The danzón 'Las Alturas de Simpson' named after a barrio in Matanzas, is written by composer/tailor Miguel Faílde.

1868. Puerto Rico. Most famous attempted revolution called "Grito de Lares" occurs. In the months leading up to it, the Puerto Rican danza 'La Borinqueña' becomes a symbol of nationalist sentiment.

1862. Santiago de Cuba. Englishman John Nunes sells his distillery to Facundo de Bacardí y Moreau.

1852. Santiago de Cuba. Tympani, forerunner to the timbales (pailas), played for the first time in Cuba by Antonio Boza. Featured in the Italian opera 'Lucia di Lamermoor'.

1851. Cuba. The patriotic hymn 'La Bayamesa' in the style of the canciones de salón from Cuba's Oriente is penned by revolutionaries Francisco Castillo Moreno and Carlos Manuel de Céspedes. The political content is later replaced with romantic lyrics.

1533. Cartagena de Las Indias, Colombia. The first African slaves arrive in Colombia to work in agriculture on the Atlantic coast and mine gold on the Pacific coast.

Expanded Glossary
There's a lot in a name; especially when a name means a different thing in a different context. It all began as numerous entries scattered across a myriad of shorthand notepads. Then it occurred to me that a webpage was a much better place to put it.

Note: entries aren't cross-referenced, so the search facility on your browser might be the best way of finding what you want.
 

Aguinaldo
Puerto Rican folkloric musical form of the jíbaros related to the seis. Consequently associated with the mountainous interior of the island.

Amor triste
Unrequited love ("sorrowful love").

Andalusian cadence
Descending progression of chords: A minor - G major - F major - E major, believed to have come from Southern Spain under Moorish influence. This motif is common to the folkloric musics of the Spanish Caribbean.

Batá drums
Played in Afro-Cuban sacred music. Hourglass-shaped drums with one much larger head (enu) than the other (chachá). Drumheads are made with male goatskin. The drums are laid horizontally across the thighs and played with bare hands. The cuban set has three drums: iyá (largest), itótetele (middle), and okónkolo (small).

Bohemios
Poor Cuban guitar-playing singer-songwriters of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Bolero
Cuban romantic song genre ,not to be confused with the Spanish genre of the same name. Grew out of Santiago de Cuba in the mid-late 1800s.

Bomba (dance)
Afro-Puerto Rican dance which is highly polyrhythmic in nature and involves complex interactions between the dancers and rummers. Originating from the coastal plains of the island, the drumming is supported by a call-and-response vocal which is led by a lead solo voice, and replied to by a unison chorus. Cuba's equivalent is the Rumba.

Bomba (drum)
Single-headed goadskin drum of Puerto Rico, whose shells were originally made from barrels that had been used to transport lard or rum.

Botao
Movement performed by the female in rumba guaguancó to avert the vacunao of the male by the covering of her pelvic region with the handkerchief or folds of her skirt.

Botija a.k.a. Botijuela
Large clay jug, originally made from those used to transport olive oil to Cuba from Spain. The player sings the bass note into the jug from a hole in the side, using the container as a resonating chamber.

Caja
Largest of three drums made of tree trunks and ox hide in the classic West African configuration. The other two being the mula and the cachimbo.

Capetillo
The back and forth interchange between the estibrillo of the coro and the soneo/inspiración of the sonero. Musical literature in English describes this phenomenon as 'call-and-response'.

Casinos or Casinos Españoles
Social clubs in the late 1800s for the social elites (of proven Spanish descent) of Puerto Rico.

Charanga
In Cuba, a style of ensemble featuring flute and violin. Also a term used in Spain to describe a wind band. Curiously, the charanga never caught on in Puerto Rico which is normally receptive to Cuban genres.

Charanga francesca
Charanga ensembles which included piano. The "francesca" bit was added to denote a more refined sound, as the word "charanga" then was viewed pejoratively as something trivial. Charangas francescas were of distinctly Cuban origin, despite their name.

Chekeré or Shekeré
Large gourd covered with a bead netting; a shaker-style percussion instrument.

Columbia
An uptempo song and dance member of the rumba complex, it is a virtuoso acrobatic form performed solo with props called tratados. Columbia is named after a railroad weighing station in Matanzas province.

Controversia
Style of Puerto Rican jíbaro music which makes "use of alternating voices trading verses in a sort of musical argument" (Ruth Glassner). The Cuban equivalent is the trading of inspiraciones by soneros.

Coro
Literally "chorus". Backing vocals who sing the estibrillo, providing the framework for the sonero to improvise lyrics. In salsa, the vocals may be harmonised to the root, the third above, and the fifth below.

Danza
Puerto Rican music and dance form comprising: paseo (introduction); merengue (melodic section); contrasting melodic section; and closing with the original merengue. Consisting only of an ABAB structure, its repetitiveness left it vulnerable to allegations of monotony. Orchestras contained flutes, violins, piano, güiro, and military brass. The danza was also played in Cuba.

Danzón
Popular Cuban music and dance form with an ABACA (rondo) structure featuring clarinet in the B section and violin in the C section, within a repeated theme to maintain unity.

Décima
Found in numerous music and dance forms of the Spanish Caribbean, it comprises ten octosyllabic lines of fixed rhyme with the scheme ABBAACCDDC e.g. güajira of eastern Cuba. Also a Spanish poetic form.

Despedida
Puerto Rican term for the closing song at casino dances.

Día de la Raza [Day of the Spanish Race]
Colombus day falls officially on the 12th of October but is celebrated on the 2nd Monday in October. As been used as a marker of Hispanic identity en bloc in NYC that is emphatically non-Italian.

Diana
Opening vocal syllables sung usually in rumba used to set the key of the song.

Estibrillo
The "hook" of song as sung by the coro (backing vocals) during the montuno section.

Guagua
Fast time-keeping two-bar rhythm played with sticks on the side of the largest drum (called the caja) in early rumba.

Guaguancó
Uptempo couple dance of the rumba complex. Originating in Matanzas circa 1880, the dance theme is sexual and centres around the movements of vacunao and botao.

Guajeo
Repeated rhythmic cycle of notes or chords (a.k.a. montuno or vamp) played on stringed instruments like tres, guitar and violin. This is the rhythmic stream that propels the son and similar Cuban musics.

Guaracha
Cuban form similar to the son, but higher in tempo and adhereing strictly to a four line verse structure. Possibly deriving its name from guarache (Mexican scandal) and once a mainstay of Cuban comic theater, the guaracha is satirical or situationally humorous in theme.

Guaracha-son
A guaracha with a montuno section attached.

Guayo
A large güiro.

Güiro
The güiro is a single gourd scored with horizontal grooves on one side, and holes cut into the other so that it can be held. A small-diameter rod, also held horizontally, is run over the grooves to produce a ratcheting sound.

Haciéndolo a Guaje
"Faked playing it".

Isla, La
Puerto Rican term, used pejoratively, to refer to those of the mountainous interior implying cultural, economic and social deficiency.

Jíbaro
Subsistence farmers of the mountainous interior of Puerto Rico. Cuba's equivalent are the guajiros of Sierra Maestra.

Manglar
Mangrove swap in Cuba where the negros curros lived.

Manigua
Thick vegetative cover, an area where paleros would go with their ngangas to call upon the dead to fight with them. It appears as a term of cultural resistance.

Manoseo del cuero
Cuban method of playing on timbale skins with hands and fingers.

Marímbula a.k.a. Manímbula
A thumb piano comprising a wooden box with a sound hole cut in the front. Metal tongues were attached to the box partially projecting over the sound hole, which were plucked by the thumb to produce bass tones. Probably derived from the African instrument, the mbira.

Montuno
Repeated rhythmic cycle of notes or chords played on the piano that underpins modern salsa and timba. Compare this with the term guajeo.

Música movida
Upbeat music.

Negros curros
Free Blacks who emigrated from Sevilla to Cuba in the 1500s. Their flamboyant dress live on in modern day in the form of large ruffled sleeves (think Mambo Kings), and pants narrow in waist but large at the leg.

Nganga
The focal point of the palo religion which, in Cuba, refers to the iron cauldron containing spiritual elements, or to the spirit of the dead that resides within it.

Nuyoricans
Economic migrants from Puerto Rico who settled in New York.

Orixás
Deities venerated by Afro-Brazillians.

Orú
Lukumi musical liturgies or devotional cycles of songs, where the orishas are saluted in fixed sequence. There are three forms: unaccompanied singing and chanting (orú); unaccompanied batá drumming (orú de igbodú or orú "seco"); and singing, dancing and drumming together (orú del eya aranla).

Paila
1. Another name for timbales; 2. Verbal instruction to play the cáscara pattern.

Palo
Congolese (Bantu) religion as practiced in Cuba.

Pelarte
Colloquialism: "to tan your hide".

Permanentes
Cuban Army established by the United States over the course of Cuba's War of Independence from Spain. The policy was to post its members to unfamiliar regions of the island (somewhat reminiscent of the Roman legions).

Plena
Puerto Rican music and dance form originating from the lower class regions of the island's southern coast. Topical and often satirical, it combined the Spanish verse structure with the African call-and-response with percussive emphasis.

Rumba
Cuban percussion-based music and dance complex comprising: yambú, a slower more stately partner dance; guaguancó, a quick tempo partner dance featuring a sexual motif performed by the male called vacunao; and columbia, a virtuoso solo dance performed by males sometimes with blades as props. Rumba also describes the occassion when these dances are performed.

Seis
Song and dance form popular amongst the jíbaros of Puerto Rico, performed in groups of six couples (hence the name). Contains much of the traditional influences of Spain during the colonial period.

Seis con décima
Version of the seis containing décimas (ten-line verses). More precise in terms of meter and rhyme than the traditional seis. Comes to preserve the cultural history and social commentary which would otherwise have been lost, due to the high illiteracy rate of the demographic group.

Serenatas
Romantic serenades.

Solar
Multi-family dwellings for the poor, arranged around a central square in which were located the communal sanitary facilities.

Son
from the verb "sonar" [to sound]. Ned Sublette in his book 'Cuba and its music' describes it as "a Cuban synthesis: Bantu percussion, elodic rhythm, and call-and-response singing, melding with the Spanish peasant's guitar and language."

Soneo a.k.a. Inspiración
Improvised line by the sonero (lead singer of son) phrased to clave.

Tambores de Fundamento
Consecrated set of batá with an orisha, Añá, sealed inside by its maker. Only used in sacred ceremonies. A new set of batá with fundamento are born in a ceremony in the presence of an older set and have their own birthday, are fed and accorded the same privileges of an orisha.

Tango
1. A word possibly of Bantu origin, like the term "tumba", frequently used by the Spanish with the activities of black peoples. 2. Music and dance genre most popularised by Argentines. 3. Used interchangably with the word "habanera" to describe the rhythm which emanated from Havana.

Tiempo Muerto
Literally "Dead Time". The period in between sugar harvests when unemployment is high.

Timba
Energetic unruly dance wave beginning in 1980s Havana, comprising rumba, jazz pop and funk elements.

Toque de santo
A Santería event featuring drumming and dancing in which the saint may come down and "mount" a believer who is referred to as the "horse". A party for the gods.

Tratados
Props employed in the dancing of rumba columbia, usually: cane harvest instruments like the knife or machete, staves, chairs, glasses of water, and bottles.

Tres
Cuban guitar-like instrument, but played more like a piano in terms of rhythm. It has a small body, and is metal-strung with three widely-separated courses of double strings. The central course is unison whilst the outer pairs are in octaves. Possibly an African adaptation of of the Spanish bandurria.

Trocha
Neighbourhood of Santiago de Cuba famous for its Carnival.

Tumbadora (pl. tumbadores) a.k.a. Congas
Single-headed and barrel-shaped hand drum that is quintessentially Cuban, formed from the merger of two other types of drum: the tambores de rumba and the carnaval conga. Comes in three sizes: tumbadora (largest); salidor or seis por ocho (middle); and quinto (smallest).

Vacunao
[Lit. Vaccinate] Symbolic gesture of possession of the female dancer's gentials by the male, in the form of an aggressive hand movement, a kick, movement of handkerchief, or pelvic thrust.

Velada
Soiree, private or public cultural event normally held at a private residence.

Yambú
Slowest song and dance form of the rumba complex where couples use softer, more sensuous movements. Resembling the dance form congo baile yuka, the yambú does not contain the vacunao movement.

Zarabanda
Cuban-Congolese symbol of resistance describing a fierce iron-wielding warrior bathed in blood, usually grasping a machete. The Yoruban equivalent is Ogún. 

Loo's Collection
(Not in any particular order)

Chachachá: Classic cheek, classic chic
A tribute to one of my favourite rhythms, the cheeky little chachachá. This article was just begging to be written.

Dancing out of Focus: Moves versus Methods
You can learn a lot from your friends. This piece came about after "sex in the city"-style musings with some terrific dance colleagues.

Floorcraft: Pleasure without the Pain
Simply put, it's about a clash of two dancefloor cultures. And never the 'twain shall meet.

"The chachachá is a dead rhythm," proclaimed Hermel. Hermel is a friend of mine who once owned a record store in London selling Latin music. He's right you know, well, at least from the perspective of most Latin Americans living in the U.K. Both the rhythm and the dance make only cameo appearances on our Latin dance floors. Club teachers and dancers don't seem to want to teach it, or learn it as a dance. Hell, most Latin-club goers hardly even recognise the rhythm when it comes over the P.A.

Legend has it that one Enrique Jorrin, a Cuban big-band leader in New York invented it. He was watching the dancers and noticed the sounds their feet made; they produced a "shar-shar" noise as their feet moved across the ballroom floor. Inspired, Enrique left at the end of the night and returned the next night with a brand new rhythm, which he tried out on the dancers. The response was incredible, and the chachachá went on to take the world by storm. This was the early 1950s.

It's a romantic anecdote, and apart from any inaccuracies, it does say a little something about dancing then as it is today. Dancers and musicians interacted a lot more then, perhaps it's because we don't dance to live music as often now.

The chachachá is a mid-tempo rhythm; faster than the bolero and slower than the mambo. But all three of them (and including salsa) are members of the same family called the son rhythm group. They all have four beat patterns, share an accent on the second beat, and obey the son clave. While not as romantic as its slower sibling, and not as frenetic as its quicker ones, I feel that the chachacha is the true rogue of the family. The chachachá has a cheeky combination of quick and slow pulses, giving it a kind of tension and dynamism that really is something special.

"So, how's it danced?" I hear you clamour. "That all depends," I reply. Some people would argue that the International Latin American version would be accurate. After all, it has changed little in structure since it was documented. While it is still true to the form, in that it is danced on the second beat because of the accent, it is too heavily stylised and sanitised for today's club environment. I recommend dancing your favourite version of salsa to chachacha music, replacing the third step with two smaller quicker steps followed by a slower one (known as cha-cha-chás).

As for which beat to dance it on, there are innumerable discussions on whether to dance it on beats one or two. To be rhythmically accurate, it should be on beat two. That way the cha-cha-chás would fall on the proper part of the rhythm (which is what Enrique Jorrin probably intended). Having said that, it's much easier for people to learn dancing on beat one. And as a well-known dance teacher once told me, "what's easier, sells". There is very little point in sticking slavishly to dancing on two if it causes the form to die out. So when faced with a decision between one and the other, have both! I dance on one with less experienced dancers and on two with the more experienced ones.

The chachachá rhythm is still here in the present day. A little like a film star whom you recognise but no-one else around you does. Its musicians the like of Willie Colón, Fulanito, Illegales, Sergio George, Jarabe de Palo, and Carlos Santana who have kept it very much alive.

It was Carlos Santana's comeback album "Supernatural" containing three chachachas, and particularly the track "Smooth" that exposed the need to write about this not-so-forgotten rhythm. The same track sold more than fourteen million copies and earned him a Grammy.

To be appreciated by so many, and to be recognised by so few... How chic is that?

Loo Yeo, 24th February 2000 (updated 12-04-06) 

Dancing out of Focus:
Moves versus Methods

Throughout the years that I've been teaching dance, I've noticed something that nearly all developing dancers have in common: an obsession with moves. I've also noticed that the vast majority of dance instructors focus heavily on the teaching of moves (or turn combinations to give them their proper name).

William, a rather enlightened dance colleague of mine has a rather amusing analogy for the more extreme cases, comparing those dancers with pre-adolescent stamp collectors. Their stepping out onto the dance floor is the equivalent of saying, "Hey, look how many stamps I've got!" "No, I don't care what condition they're in." "Order? Who says I've got to put them in order?"

I was bending my feeble intellect to understanding this craving for moves, when the final piece of the puzzle concerning technique was given to me by Andreas (an inimitable combination of German rock and rolling research chemist plus salsa instructor).

I understand that many people use the number of moves that they know (aka. dance vocabulary) as a yardstick for measuring their development. And yes, it's extremely important for students to be able to measure their own progress. However this emphasis on moves has polarised the dance education market, and it is easy to see why teachers teach the way they do. They're only catering to demand.

Techniques on the other hand are much more ephemeral than moves. It takes a student of much greater self–understanding to take adequate stock of the quality of his or her dancing. That's because good methods are used so often that they automatically become a part of you, and you tend to take them for granted, forgetting that you actually have them. To appreciate what you have at the present moment requires you to remember what you were like before. It's something that most of us would sooner forget.

There is, however, a way to have your cake and eat it. It comes from understanding the phrase "turn combination". It implies that a turn combination is made up of smaller elements, including turns, that are put together. Instead of teaching one combination at a time, students would benefit from being taught the individual elements and how to link them. This would greater empower the students with respect to creating their own combinations. Hence the adage: give a man a fish and he eats for a day, teach him to fish and he eats for a lifetime. Once the need for learning combinations has been reduced, focus naturally shifts to how to execute the elements and links more effectively.

The lamentable thing is that this approach is not new. It has existed in the Argentine Tango in Buenos Aires for a time immemorial. After more than ten years in this country, the teaching of salsa here shows little sign of developing in that direction. What holds back its introduction I believe, occurs on the parts of both the teachers and students.

The cynic in me would say that teachers at a commercial level tend to do what's easiest for them. Putting combinations together and teaching them is easy when you know how. And so long as the students never acquire the ability to generate their own moves, they'll keep coming back for more. Teaching an audience that is already capable of creating their own combinations is a very different kettle of fish altogether.

On the other hand, a significant proportion of students just want to be taught and don't want to learn. Learning requires much more active brainwork, chewing over information instead of being spoon-fed. Many people who take up dance do so because they want to relax, and the last thing they want is to be subjected to a mental assault course. I understand that. However, I do believe that there is room for the kind of classes that cater to those who do want to learn. I've been fortunate enough to run a special class for such individuals. And yes, the process does work. Even aspects of dance that I thought could only be acquired, such as creativity and musicality can be taught.

So isn't it time that we, as dance teachers, took a positive step in helping our students become aware that moves are but a short paragraph in the story of dance? And that if you focus too closely on a small part of a picture, you don't get to see the whole thing.

Loo Yeo, 1st March 2000

I found myself in London a little while ago; my friends and I had ventured south to experience a particular salsa band play. The performance was exhilarating and the house was full. Anyway, soon after the band quit the stage, I asked a rather winsome young lady for a dance; she had been standing nearby and plainly enjoyed the scene.

Given the crowded conditions, I elected to restrict the turn combinations I would use, focusing instead on basic patterns and simple turns. I reckoned that my partner would appreciate my safeguarding her person. It was a sorry miscalculation.

As the music played on, a light of disappointment seemed to grow stronger in her eyes. It was obvious that she had expected us to burst into a flurry of spins that would cause the soles of our shoes to combust. For a brief moment I considered it. After all, there are only a handful of people on the globe (including yours truly) who can perform the insanely difficult "triple pirouette half twist whilst skinning a small rodent with the toes of the left foot" manoeuvre with any semblance of grace. However if we had done so, the collateral damage to nearby civilians would have brought immediate international reprisals.

I sighed and clung doggedly to my original plan, nimbly side-stepping other partnerships whose bombardment of the dance floor would have done NATO proud.

The end of the song drew upon us and we politely parted. We bore, I am certain, our own burdens of disappointment: she for my gross inadequacy in the spinning department, and myself in her not realising that I had saved her the indignity of more than a dozen bruises to various parts of her anatomy.

It was a stark reminder that there are indeed two cultures on the dance floor. One is based on the premise that those who have supposedly paid their dues to dancing can reap their rewards, usually at the expense of others. There is a clear pecking order for access to the floor: the more experienced partnerships over the less experienced, partnerships over solo dancers, dancers over non-dancers. Sadly, I've seen this hierarchy enforced on numerous occasions by processes of intimidation, establishing an environment that is difficult for beginners to develop in.

The other culture is based on an acknowledgement that everyone has an equal right to space on the dance floor, experienced dancers and newcomers alike. The difference is that with increased ability comes increased responsibility in safeguarding the well being of your partner and those less experienced.

Floorcraft is born of this principle. It describes a person's ability to observe and adapt to the dynamic conditions of the dance floor; in a manner that renders his or her partner safe and comfortable, whilst accommodating others no matter how busy the venue might be. Crafty dancers have the knack of having a thoroughly good time without incurring or inflicting injury.

It's not easy, since the dancers have to determine the size and shape of space that is and will be available, and how to fill it in a manner that interprets the music. A profound tactile understanding of the partnership is necessary in order to free up the visual senses for the peripheral observation of available space. And filling in this space with movement depends as much on an ability to adjust dance timing, as well as being able to exploit the points of flexibility in any turn combination.

In real terms, effective floorcraft demands the development of quite a large skill set, which is a very significant challenge. A system based on priority does little to encourage the acquisition of skills beyond a certain point; there is no need to develop observation, or learn how to flex a turn combination when you can just barge obstacles out of the way.

The expansion and transnationalisation of Latin music and dance as a social phenomenon shows no sign of slowing. Floorcraft is the keystone of social dance, but its continued existence requires a fundamental shift in our cultural dance attitude. Therein lies the pain. We should be making it easier for those with an interest in Latin culture to partake of it, instead of stamping that interest out of them at the earliest opportunity.

Loo Yeo, 3rd March 2000